The recent global chip shortage, triggered by pandemic disruptions and geopolitical tensions, has highlighted the vulnerability of relying on a limited number of regions for semiconductor manufacturing. Recognizing this critical need for self-reliance, India has taken steps to boost its domestic chip manufacturing capabilities.

Leading the charge is the TATA group, which has partnered with Taiwan's Powerchip Semiconductor Manufacturing Corporation (PSMC) to establish a state-of-the-art 300mm wafer fabrication plant in Gujarat. This facility is expected to produce its first 28nm chip in 2026. Additionally, the Indian government has recently approved the construction of two assembly and test plants in Gujarat and Assam, further strengthening the domestic chip ecosystem.

2. About Semiconductor Chips and their Manufacturing Process

• A semiconductor chip, also known simply as a chip or integrated circuit, is a crucial component in modern electronics.
• Semiconductors possess properties that lie between those of conductors, which readily conduct electricity, and insulators, which do not.
• In their purest form, semiconductors exhibit minimal electrical conductivity. However, this conductivity can be modified by introducing small amounts of specific substances known as "dopants."
• The manufacturing process of semiconductor chips involves intricate techniques aimed at precisely altering the electrical properties of semiconductor materials.
• By carefully injecting specific parts of a pure semiconductor with dopants, complex circuits can be effectively "printed" onto the semiconductor substrate.This process can be likened to creating detailed artwork on paper or a wall using stencils and spray paints of various colours.
• In the semiconductor industry, the stencils are referred to as "masks," while the dopants serve as the equivalent of paint. Through the meticulous application of masks and dopants, semiconductor manufacturers can fabricate intricate circuitry essential for the functioning of electronic devices.

3. About Transistors

• A transistor stands as one of the earliest electronic components crafted using semiconductor materials, showcasing remarkable versatility in its applications.
• In its most prevalent form, a transistor operates as an electronic switch, capable of controlling the flow of electrical current.
• Within a typical semiconductor chip, millions or even billions of interconnected transistors collaborate to execute various logical and computational tasks.
• Beyond its role as a switch, a transistor can also serve as an amplifier, enhancing weak signals such as those received by cell phones.
• Moreover, transistors play a crucial role in circuits involved in generating and processing high-frequency signals, essential for wireless communication technologies.
• Today, these diverse functionalities of transistors are routinely integrated into a single semiconductor chip, exemplified by the WiFi chip found in mobile devices.
• The invention of the transistor demonstrated how a solitary device could be fashioned from a semiconductor material, marking a significant advancement in electronics.
• Subsequently, the ability to "print" multiple devices onto a single semiconductor substrate to construct entire circuits represented the next leap forward.
• Both of these breakthroughs laid the groundwork for the semiconductor revolution and have been duly recognized by Nobel Prizes, awarded in 1956 and 2000, respectively.

4. Fabrication Technology in Semiconductor Manufacturing

• Fabrication technology in semiconductor manufacturing refers to the processes and techniques used to create semiconductor chips with increasingly advanced features and capabilities.
• Over the past six decades since the inception of semiconductor chips, technological advancements have propelled the industry forward at a relentless pace, introducing newer manufacturing technologies at regular intervals.
• One significant aspect of fabrication technology is the level of miniaturization achieved in semiconductor chips.
• This advancement is akin to the analogy of using stencils to etch smaller and more intricate patterns.
• The miniaturization of semiconductor components, such as transistors, has increased by orders of magnitude. This progress is accompanied by impressive gains in the switching capability of transistors, enabling faster switching speeds and lower power consumption.
• Manufacturing technologies are often denoted by labels like '45nm,' '28nm,' and '16nm,' with 'nm' representing nanometers, an extremely small unit of length equal to one billionth of a meter.
• These numbers signify the level of miniaturization achievable using a particular technology, with smaller numbers indicating finer features.
• While traditionally electronic circuits have been laid out flat on semiconductor substrates, researchers are increasingly exploring the use of the third dimension (height) to enhance performance.
• As the dimensions of individual transistors decrease, increasing their height can help ensure reliable operation.
• Additionally, stacking entire circuits on top of one another is another approach to further reduce semiconductor chip sizes and enhance functionality.

5. Wafer in Semiconductor Manufacturing

• In the realm of semiconductor manufacturing, a wafer is akin to a crucial canvas on which semiconductor chips are created.
• Drawing an analogy to the production of postage stamps, semiconductor chips are crafted on a wafer much like stamps are printed on a sheet of paper and then individually cut out.
• Typically, an array of chips, numbering around 300-400, is printed on a circular piece of semiconductor material, referred to as a wafer within the industry. Subsequently, the wafer is diced into individual chips.
• The size of the wafer plays a pivotal role in the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of chip production.
• Larger wafer sizes facilitate the printing of more chips on a single wafer, thereby accelerating chip production while simultaneously reducing costs.
• Over time, wafer sizes utilized in the industry have steadily increased. Presently, the state-of-the-art standard is a 300mm wafer, roughly equivalent to 12 inches in diameter.
• Ongoing efforts aim to transition towards utilizing 450mm wafer sizes. While transitioning to larger wafer sizes poses technical challenges and capital expenses, it ultimately proves to be economically advantageous in the long run.
• Following the dicing of the wafer into individual chips, each chip undergoes packaging wherein it is encased in a protective covering.
• Furthermore, intricate wiring is meticulously routed from the device to the periphery of the package. These wires serve various functions, including power supply and signal transmission.
• Subsequently, each chip undergoes rigorous testing procedures, including functionality verification and stress testing, to ensure reliability throughout its operational lifespan. These assembly and test processes are carried out in specialized assembly and test plants.

6. India's Semiconductor Ecosystem

• India's semiconductor ecosystem has witnessed significant growth, particularly in chip design, since the 1990s.
• Leveraging the capabilities of computer-aided design (CAD), semiconductor chips can be designed entirely using software tools. This process involves specifying the chip's functionality, translating it into electronic circuits, validating the circuits, and optimizing for factors such as speed, power consumption, and size all achievable by skilled engineers working at their desktops.
• The final chip design is abstracted into a file format and sent to a fabrication plant for manufacturing, resembling the process of creating and publishing a graphic novel entirely on a laptop.
• India's venture into semiconductor manufacturing stands to benefit from its well-established ecosystem for chip design, driven by a steady influx of electronics and computer engineers.
• Given that semiconductor manufacturing is inherently interdisciplinary, there are opportunities for professionals from various fields to contribute meaningfully to this industry.
• This includes process and control engineers, data scientists, material scientists, physicists, and chemical engineers, who can collaborate to advance semiconductor manufacturing capabilities in the country.